Affirmative action: a. is primarily applied to hiring decisions b. is limited to African-Americans and women c. includes any formal or informal efforts to improve the employment opportunities of African-Americans and women d. all of the above e. none of the above

Answer: E. None of the above

Explanation: Affirmative action is the a set of policies or programs providing advantages for people of a group who are seen to have traditionally been discriminated against. Affirmative action may be used on behalf of the following groups: African-Americans, women, Pacific Islanders, disabled persons etc. The policy focuses on human populations who have historically had low representation in positions of leadership, professional roles, academics etc. and therefore aims to increase the number of people from these groups within companies, institutions, or any other areas of the society.

The correct answer is e. none of the above.

Explanation:

Affirmative action refers to the set of policies and actions aimed at reducing discrimination against groups that have historically been involved in problems of this type. Within the group of options, none is related to this type of action, and for example b. It would not fall within the definition described, since the effort that is made is only formal and although historically they have been discriminated against, it has been because of their skin type and not because of the employment opportunities they can access.