Which of the following gave rise to a fundamental division in the umma and in Muslim theology?
a. The failure of Abu Bakr to clearly designate his successor
b. The civil war that arose between the followers of Uthman and Mu'awiya
c. The assassination of Ali and the assumption of the caliphate by Mu'awiya
d. Mu'awiya's decision to emphasize tribalism over Muslim political and religious unity
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