1. the physical characteristics and the human characteristics that define and differentiate regions

2. the causes and effects of the development of constitutional monarchy in England with those of the development of absolute monarchy in France, Spain, and Russia

3. how ideas from the Middle Ages and Renaissance led to the Scientific Revolution

1.) Human georgraphy is the study of how humans have affected and been affected by the environment and why civilizations are where they are. It talks about culture, arithmetic density, migration, population, etc. Physical geography, however, is the study of the physical characteristics of Earth (minus the human aspect), such as mountains, oceans, rivers, etc.

2.) A monarch is the head of a monarchy, a form of government in which a state or polity is ruled by an individual who normally rules for life or until abdication, and typically inherits the throne by birth.

3.) All of this started to filter into Europe, with some early translations in the 10th-11th centuries and a big wave in the 13th. Roger Bacon in the 13th century asserted that observation and experience were surer guides to knowledge than the authorities or pure logic relied on by most medieval thinkers. Another Bacon, Francis (not sure if there's a relation), would develop this into full-on empirical method in the 16th century. Meanwhile, medieval Europe had become very adept at borrowing technologies developed elsewhere (like gunpowder or paper) or devising its own (like the magnetic compass) and putting them to practical use. This would lead to things like the telescope which made the discoveries of Galileo possible.